St. Eustatius, a small island in the northeastern Lesser Antilles, was one of the busiest ports in the eighteenth-century Atlantic World. Contested between the Dutch, French, and English, the island attracted thousands of ships a year and became one of the most cosmopolitan places in the New World. Moreover, the island played an important role in the American War of Independence (1775-1783), during which large quantities of arms, ammunition, and gunpowder were shipped to the fledgling United States through St. Eustatius.Relics of this turbulent past are found all over the island and in its surrounding waters. These include warehouses in the historic port district, fortifications all around the island, sugar plantations in the countryside, and a variety of underwater archaeological sites such as shipwrecks, anchorage areas, and docks.Through extensive archaeological and documentary research, this study aims to provide a detailed analysis of the maritime cultural landscape of St. Eustatius over the past four centuries. It focuses on bridging the gap between the marine and terrestrial worlds and demonstrates that in order to truly make sense of the complex interactions, events, and processes that shaped this maritime world, both land and sea need to be studied in relation to each other.Contents:Acknowledgements1. Introduction1.1 Natural and environmental setting1.2 Historical setting1.3 Previous research1.4 Research problem2. Theoretical Framework2.1 The development of theory in maritime archaeology2.2 The maritime cultural landscape2.3 The place of shipwrecks in the maritime cultural landscape3. Research Methodology3.1 Underwater archaeological research3.1.1 Geophysical survey methods3.1.2 SCUBA diving survey3.2 The documentary record3.2.1 Maps, charts, and artwork3.2.2 Photographs3.2.3 Wills, deeds, and probate inventories3.2.4 Traveler's accounts and ship logs3.2.5 Newspapers3.2.6 Public records4. Economic Components4.1 The commercial component4.1.1 Lower Town4.1.1.1 Archaeological research in Lower Town4.1.2 Plantations4.2 The transport and communication component4.2.1 The roadstead4.2.1.1 Documentary evidence4.2.1.2 Archaeology4.2.2 Shipwrecks4.2.2.1 Documentary evidence4.2.2.2 Shipwrecks in St. Eustatius' archaeological record4.2.3 From sea to shore4.2.4 Discussion4.3 The resource component4.3.1 Water supply4.3.2 Provisioning grounds4.3.3 Fishing4.3.4 Animal husbandry4.3.5 Imports4.4 Conclusions5. Social Components5.1 The civic component5.1.1 Upper Town5.1.2 Lower Town5.1.3 Plantations5.1.4 The roadstead5.2 The cognitive component5.2.1 Place names5.2.2 Religious buildings5.2.3 The deceased5.3 The recreative component5.3.1 Alcohol consumption5.3.2 Smoking5.3.3 Parties5.3.4 Tours and picnics5.4 Conclusions6. Political Components6.1 The defense component6.1.1 The first fort6.1.2 A ring of fortifications6.1.3 The year 17816.1.4 Safety on the roadstead6.2 The power component6.2.1 Moveable objects6.2.2 Plantations6.2.3 Johannes de Graaff6.2.4 Cemeteries6.2.5 Military installations6.3 Conclusions7. Discussion7.1 Differing timescales7.1.1 The defense component7.1.2 The commercial component7.1.3 The power component7.1.4 The resource component7.1.5 The cognitive component7.1.6 The civic component7.1.7 The transport and communication component7.1.8 The recreative component7.2 The natural environment7.2.1 The civic and commercial components7.2.2 The recreative component7.2.3 The transport and communication component7.2.4 The defense and power components7.2.5 The resource component7.2.6 The cognitive component7.3 Overlapping components7.4 Regional and global context7.4.1 Shipping and trade7.4.2 St. Thomas and St. Barths7.4.3 Bermuda7.4.4 British North America8. ConclusionBibliographyAppendix I: Bathymetric mapAppendix II: Side scan sonar survey areaAppendix III: Underwater survey transectsAppendix IV: Underwater archaeological sites and artifactsAppendix V: Extent of the roadsteadAppendix VI: Shipwreck site drawings, 1987-1988Appendix VII: Text reference locations
